Nonces and merkle trees are important components of blockchains. Both are related to efficiency aspects. Verifying a block by means of a nonce is extremely efficient; however, computing a nonce (i.e. mining) is extremely inefficient . A merkle tree is a data structure used in blockchains for summarizing and verifying the integrity of a block in a very efficient way. Hashing a block requires a number of calculations which is a multiple of the block size. Merkle trees reduce this number logarithmically.

Related: Bitcoins and Certificates

Data Protection Act

The Swiss Data Protection Act underwent a complete revision in 2020, and its new version took effect on September 1, 2023, along with the new Data Protection Ordinance (DPO). The revision itself is complete, but its practical application continues to evolve. The topic of AI is particularly relevant: On May 8, 2025, the FDPIC confirmed that the DPA is technology-neutral and applies directly to all AI applications. In practice, this means, among other things, that users must know whether they are interacting with AI (transparency requirement, Art. 19), and that a data protection impact assessment is mandatory in cases of high risk—such as profiling or facial recognition (Art. 22). The Federal Office of Justice (FOJ) is drafting a consultation document on AI regulation to be completed by the end of 2026. With this, Switzerland will implement the Council of Europe's AI Convention.

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